The problem of the digital divide often involves two assumptions: (1) that it is simply a matter of access to technology, and (2) that it is a matter largely affecting only developing nations. A quick review of current literature, however, dispels both of these notions. In technologically developed societies, the scope of the problem is actually quite large and involves Internet availability, computer and software costs, information and communication technology (ICT) training and education, and IT support.

This paper will survey a variety of measures describing the digital divide in North America and Europe and then address each of the issues mentioned above. A variety of programs and efforts will then be outlined and possible solutions offered. The paper concludes with a call for all sectors of society to become actively involved to address these issues, with special recognition of the importance community colleges play.

The opportunities afforded by the development of the Internet and the World Wide Web are almost too numerous to name. For those able to successfully venture through the digital looking glass, the Web promises much; for those who cannot, it all too frequently serves only as a reminder of their limitations. Many in our societies have come to take this technology for granted, having grown up in this recently emerging culture or having worked aggressively to gain the skills and knowledge required to participate effectively in this relatively new wonderland. Not everyone is participating equally, though, which is a problem referred to as the digital divide.

The digital divide is an expression that dates back to the mid-1990s, when a push for greater access to the information superhighway began. Although “digital divide” had appeared in print and speeches as early as 1995, President Bill Clinton and Vice President Al Gore popularized the phrase in a speech in Knoxville, Tennessee, in 1996 (Clinton and Gore, 1996). Since then, the digital divide has certainly continued to be a topic of interest to both academia and the media. A recent search of the Educause database revealed 802 references (Educause, 2008), while a general search of Google resulted in more than 3,310,000 hits, and a search of Google Scholar returned more than 328,000 (Google, 2008c).

This begs the question, however, as to what the digital divide truly describes. Older definitions tended to focus on inequities in access to technology, such as that offered by the Digital Divide Council in 2002: “…an individual or community’s lack of access to computers and online resources. The digital divide refers to a gap between those individuals who have reasonable opportunities to access technology tools and those that do not have such reasonable opportunities” (Digital Divide Council, 2006). There has been a growing awareness, though, of the inadequacy of this description. Other factors include the large number of computer users, ranging from young students to older workers, who possess inadequate computer literacy skills and the general lack of access to computer support and flexible training.

As a result, many have begun proposing broader definitions of the digital divide. Wikipedia offers the following definition: "…the unequal access by some members of society to information and communications technology, and the unequal acquisition of related skills. Groups often discussed in the context of a digital divide include socioeconomic (rich/poor), racial (majority/minority), generational (young/old) or geographical (urban/rural). The term global digital divide refers to differences in technology access between countries" (Wikipedia, 2008a).

This definition will be used in this paper, with each of the groups mentioned above included in the discussion. To understand better the depth and breadth of the situation, it is helpful first to examine some data describing the current situation.

The Scope of the Problem

Information and communication technology (ICT) is becoming an essential component of life today. At an ever-increasing rate, ICT is becoming integrated into work, governmental and political interactions, the media, entertainment, education, religion, and social interaction. As these technologies and their associated skills increase in importance, many people are being left behind. While there is a general awareness of the severity of the digital divide on a global level, particularly in developing nations, the division in more developed nations is frequently overlooked.

In the United States for example, one in five American adults has never used the Internet or email and does not live in an Internet-connected home (Fox, 2005). Certain groups lag behind at a disproportionate rate: Americans aged 65 and older, African-Americans, and those with less education (Fox, 2005). In addition, many community colleges in the United States and Canada report wide technology skill discrepancies among their students (Carnevale, 2008); shortcomings have also been reported at some of the most prestigious universities (Rampell, 2008). Another factor is broadband penetration rates in the United States, which are of increasing concern. Currently only about 50 percent of all households have broadband (Lowry, 2008). Recent rankings by the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) put the United States at 15 in terms of broadband penetration—down from 4 in 2000. Average speeds in Japan are 20 times faster than in the United States, and South Koreans pay 9 times less per megabit than Americans pay (Lowry, 2008). On a more optimistic note, a recent Gartner study predicts that by 2012, 77 percent of U.S. households will have broadband, but this prediction is based on many assumptions and trends that could easily change (Reed, 2008).

Unfortunately, these ICT shortcomings are not confined to the United States. With respect to the European Union, only about 42 percent of households have broadband, and of people aged 55 years and older, only one-third of men and less than one-fifth of women use the Internet at least once a week. Additionally, only half of all users have sent an email with an attachment (BBC News, 2008b). In the United Kingdom, rural residents have few choices for broadband providers and are likely to get slower speeds and pay a higher price (Wakefield, 2007). The problems are not limited simply to access. The Joint Information Systems Committee, a British higher-education research institute, says the “Google Generation” lacks information literacy skills, problems which they described as consisting of poor research skills and inability to evaluate quality, among others (JISC, 2008). Some critics have bluntly criticized the primary and secondary school systems as focusing on skills-based IT training rather than information technology and literacy (Thompson, 2007a).

The growth of online education will only exacerbate the problem. Nearly 20 percent of all U.S. higher education students were taking at least one online course in the fall of 2006, with two-year associates institutions having the highest growth rates and accounting for over half of all online enrollments for the last five years (Allen and Seaman, 2007). With many students, including traditionally aged ones, lacking adequate ICT skills, the digital divide in all of its forms certainly poses challenges for many and possible exclusion for some. In order to address these issues more effectively, we will examine them individually.

The Issue of Internet Access

Lack of Internet access is being addressed by the public and private sectors in a variety of ways. In the United States, community technology centers (CTCs) have been created, but these have been only marginally developed (U.S. Dept. of Education, 2006). A more successful effort has been made by the public library system, which is increasingly being used for Internet access; unfortunately, the system is in jeopardy because of underfunding (Jesdanun, 2007). Additionally, there are a growing number of localized programs striving to address the needs of their communities. In Akron, Ohio, a nonprofit organization is creating a 12-square-mile wireless network to provide universal access (Cox, 2008), while the city of Miami, Florida, has been aggressively creating public computer labs, providing Wi-Fi access in many of its parks and establishing a grant program which provides computers to eligible sixth graders (Fried, 2008).

Recently, some tech companies, including Motorola, Microsoft, and Google, have been lobbying the FCC to allow the use of “white space” (slivers of unused spectrum that sit between licensed broadcast channels in the 150MHz to 700MHz spectrum bands) for the enhancement or creation of new broadband wireless services. Proponents of this plan have argued that these might include free or inexpensive broadband service, and that this system offers the best hope of making broadband available to rural areas. While the FCC has studied the proposal and tentatively agreed with this use, the National Association of Broadcasters has petitioned for a review of these findings (Reardon, 2008). Until the FCC has a final ruling, the roll out of these services will be on hold.

Wi-Fi access on campuses and in public areas can help fill some need, but only for those students with newer laptops and cell phones. The U.S. Congress is considering grants to help with the costs of implementing Wi-Fi, particularly on campuses serving large numbers of disadvantaged students (Foster, 2007), but as of this writing, the funds have not been allocated. In general, traditional computer labs still play an important role in providing computer access to students who lack computer access completely, or those who lack it sporadically (e.g., equipment failure, loss, theft), and others who use them primarily for group projects (Young, 2008). This demonstrates the importance for colleges to continue providing adequate levels of support to their campus computer labs to help ensure that all students are capable of participating fully. Unfortunately, many colleges and universities are now considering cutting back or closing their computer labs in favor of other budgetary priorities.

Cybercafés have proven to be highly successful worldwide, serving an estimated 500 million people every day (BBC News, 2008c). To better serve these “cyber-nomads,” Web OS’s such as Glide, g.ho.st, Jooce, and others are being developed to allow users a common interface with integrated Web applications to give users a personalized desktop accessible via any Web browser (BBC News, 2008c). As students and others move between home, work, school, libraries, and cybercafés, Web OS’s and similar services provide a common user experience to meet their individual needs.

A growing number of people are using their cell phones as portable Web devices, providing one more option for those needing flexible access. Many problems exist with their use, such as limited browser capabilities, inefficient data entry interfaces, and costly data plans, but as demonstrated by the success of the iPhone, their promise appears great and many developers are working diligently to develop more fully capable smart phones (Google, 2008a) (Linux Foundation, 2008). Some institutions of higher education have already begun experimenting with mobile learning (The Chronicle of Higher Education, 2008) to better meet the needs of an increasingly mobile student body.

The Issue of Computer Costs

The problem of computer costs is certainly one of the more obvious factors relating to the digital divide. Here we are again seeing efforts by both the public and private sectors, each with varying degrees of success. One that has gained international attention is the One Laptop per Child project. Over 600,000 laptops have been sold to date (Wikipedia, 2008b) (Thompson, 2007b), with Columbia recently announcing that it will be purchasing 65,000 units to be distributed to school-aged children in the Caldas region (BBC, 2008a). In light of the success of this program, individuals, nonprofits, and governmental agencies in North America and Europe may be inspired to implement this program to meet their local needs. Additionally, various other governmental and nongovernmental organization projects are being developed and implemented (Wikipedia, 2008b). Some public institutions have implemented a policy of donating older computers to the public K-12 school system and refurbishing other computers for sale to the public charging only enough to cover the cost of labor and software fees.

For-profit companies are also getting involved and are beginning to offer more and more low-cost systems, some of which are based on open source software and use the Linux operating system. The United Kingdom’s Elonex is preparing to launch a $195 laptop aimed at students (Meyer, 2008), and Zonbu will soon be offering a $279 notebook, which for a $15 monthly subscription fee will include software upgrades, online storage, data backup, online tech support, and hardware replacement in case of damage (Shah, 2008).

The Issue of Software Costs

The reality of software is that popular proprietary applications such as Windows, MS Office, Adobe Photoshop, Adobe Acrobat, Dreamweaver, and others are expensive though necessary requirements for both work and education, and the expenses affect all parties: students, workers, and their institutions. Free and open source software alternatives have been growing in use in recent years, with notable examples such as Mozilla’s Firefox browser, OpenOffice, and Lotus Symphony. In fact, a recent report covering 14 countries including the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, France, Germany, Australia, India, Denmark, Finland, the Netherlands, Spain, Norway, Sweden, and Italy predicts that primary and secondary schools and universities will spend $489.9 million on open-source software by 2012, up from the $286.2 million spent currently (Kirk, 2008).

OpenOffice provides word processing, presentation, spreadsheet, and database management applications that are free alternatives to the costly MS Office suite. While lacking some of the features of this widely used collection of applications, OpenOffice provides most of the basic functionality that the average user requires (OpenOffice.org, 2008). Lotus Symphony, based on OpenOffice’s code, has gained quite a bit of attention and acclaim as well (Maguire, 2008). The Mozilla Foundation, in addition to the Firefox browser, has developed the Thunderbird email application as an open source alternative to Outlook (Thunderbird, 2008). The GIMP (GNU Image Manipulation Program) provides a free raster image editing alternative to Adobe’s Photoshop (GIMP, 2008). Further adding to the options provided by open source software are portable applications, which are customized versions of many popular open source, and sometimes proprietary, software designed to run entirely from portable drives, such as USB flash drives and iPods. Their flexibility and price (free) make them attractive choices for cyber-nomads (PortableApps.com, 2008).

Recently there has been aggressive development in the area of Web-based applications or “webapps.” These programs are designed to run through users’ browsers, requiring no software downloads, except perhaps for browser plug-ins, or updates, and are usually free, at least for basic subscriptions. Examples of services include Google Docs (Google, 2008b), Zoho (Zoho, 2008), and Ulteo (Ulteo, 2008), and the use of these applications is quickly growing worldwide (Schonfeld, 2008).

While these applications and webapps provide a wealth of features for little or no cost, they are still relatively unknown to many, particularly those lacking basic computer literacy. Indeed, even in higher education and the corporate sector, there is little awareness of them and little openness to their use. Attitudes are beginning to change, as there are signs of a gradual adoption of these services in large part due to proselytizing by the converted, with student organizations such as FreeCulture serving as excellent examples of this activity (FreeCulture.org, 2008).

The Issue of ICT Training/Education

Access to technology is simply not enough; there must be adequate training available to provide basic computer literacy to everyone. This is an issue affecting most demographics as many colleges are now reporting that even a significant number of traditionally aged students lack adequate IT skills. The well-worn idea that students entering college today, though perhaps deficient in math and communication skills, possess a high degree of computer competency is a myth. In fact, many require the same level of remedial coursework in computer literacy as they do in other academic areas. As a result, some colleges are taking a proactive approach by requiring computer orientation courses for all incoming students (Carnevale, 2008).

Older users exhibit an even greater need for ICT education because they believe themselves to be at an insurmountable disadvantage to younger people where such skills and knowledge are concerned. To serve them more effectively, training must be flexible and varied to work around their schedules and preferred learning styles. This training may take many forms: adult education, community and continuing education, on-campus computer lab training, and college credit coursework. Training should be made available throughout the community, using schools, libraries (Foster, 2008), campus computer facilities, senior centers, and similar facilities to increase accessibility. Like many community colleges, Santa Fe College offers community education courses that are for seniors only, thereby creating a more comfortable learning environment. Furthermore, as our population continues to age, the median age of workers continues to rise (U.S. Department of Labor, 2008), resulting in increased need for vocational retraining, a trend that will grow.

The Issue of IT Support

Many computer users lack sufficient support for ICT problems; even for users with moderate levels of computer skills, the inevitable computer troubles will arise. For-profit services, while growing in number and availability, are often financially burdensome or completely out of reach for many computer users such as college students, lower income workers, and the elderly. Alternatives are few in number, but some have begun to appear. FreeCulture chapters have begun appearing on college campuses around the United States and elsewhere, in which members provide computer support to one another, tapping into the collective resources of the club to solve problems. On Santa Fe’s campus, all IT students are required to serve internships in the PC Shop, an on-campus computer repair center that charges very modest fees to repair and configure students’ computers.

While some computer repair businesses offer discounts to needier customers, this is not the case in general. Most computer users either pay whatever fees are required or seek the assistance of friends, family members, or coworkers who might have more expertise. Training sessions often serve as informal trouble-shooting venues; students often take advantage of the situation to seek solutions to their computing problems or concerns.

Conclusions

The digital divide is unfortunately still alive and well. It exists to varying degrees in all countries and it is far more complicated than many believe. The digital divide is not simply a matter of access but also of skills and computer literacy. As more and more of our social, governmental, business, entertainment, educational, and information gathering activities become intertwined with ICT, the need to bridge this divide grows. Even a small step toward doing so would have great benefit. According to a recent study, a modest 7 percent increase in broadband adoption in the United States alone would have an annual economic impact of $134 billion (Gross, 2008).

All sectors of our society have roles to play in alleviating this problem, including government, education, business, public libraries, and others. But what level of responsibility is each one willing to assume? Community colleges are uniquely situated to address these needs. Their willingness to provide remediation in all forms, their flexibility of delivery of instruction, their creativity in offering community and continuing education, and their close ties with the community all serve to place them in a pivotal position concerning the digital divide.

The problem is certainly complicated, requiring complex and varied solutions to help ensure that all members of society are able to participate fully in the digital revolution. Progress on these fronts must not be left to chance, individual effort, or the whims of the marketplace; specific programs, legislation, and for-profit and nonprofit efforts must target each of these needs. Organized efforts similar to those made during the push for universal literacy after the industrial revolution must be made. If these efforts are not made, we will see an increasing number of people who will feel that the digital looking glass is a mirror reflecting their shortcomings rather than a portal to a wonderland of opportunities.

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Brian Fox is Associate Professor at Santa Fe College in Gainesville, Florida.

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Cynthia Wilson, Editor